Product name: Swainsonine
Synonym name: D-Swainsonine;Tridolgosir；(-)-Swainsonine
Catalogue No.: BP5101
Cas No.: 72741-87-8
Formula: C₈H₁₅NO₃
Mol Weight: 173.212
Botanical Source:
Type of Compound: Alkaloids

Purity: 95%~99%
Analysis Method: HPLC-DAD or/and HPLC-ELSD
Identification Method: Mass, NMR
Packing: Brown vial or HDPE plastic bottle

Storage: Store in a well closed container, protected from air and light. Put into refrigerate or freeze for long term storage.
Whenever possible, you should prepare and use solutions on the same day. However, if you need to make up stock solutions in advance, we recommend that you store the solution as aliquots in tightly sealed vials at -20℃. Generally, these will be useable for up to two weeks.

The product could be supplied from milligrams to grams
Inquire for bulk scale.

For Reference Standard and R&D, Not for Human Use Directly.

Storage conditions：Short-term storage at 2~8℃, long-term storage at -20 ~ -80℃

Introduction/Overview

Swainsonine is a natural indolezidine alkaloid, first isolated from plants such as Swainsona spp.. As an effective and reversible α-mannosida α se inhibitor, kumarumatin has attracted widespread attention in the field of natural product pharmacology. Its unique molecular structure endows it with multiple biological activities in cell biology and tumor treatment, especially showing significant effects in inducing apoptosis, blocking the cell cycle, and having anti-tumor effects. In recent years, with the development of molecular targeted therapy and precision medicine, research into the mechanism of action of kumaduzin and its related molecular targets has deepened, providing a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for its clinical application.

This paper aims to systematically review the chemical structure and physicochemical properties of kumarumarin, plant origin and extraction methods, pharmacological activity and mechanism of action, druggability evaluation, and pharmacokinetic characteristics, and, combined with current research progress, explore its potential applications and future directions in tumor treatment.

Chemical structure and physicochemical properties

The chemical name of kumarumarin, 1,2,8,8a-tetrahydro-1-hydroxy-2-methylindolericidine, has a molecular formula C8H15NO3, and a molecular weight of 173.2120. Its structural feature is the indolezidine skeleton, containing multiple hydroxyl groups, which imparts strong hydrophilicity. The LogP value of kumarudin is about -1.1149, indicating low lipid solubility and high water solubility (about 224.1652 mg/mL), which is beneficial for its distribution and metabolism in the body.

Its topological pole surface area (TPSA) is 63.93 Ų, indicating moderate molecular polarity, which facilitates binding to biological macromolecules such as enzyme proteins. Bitter matuzin does not easily cross the blood-brain barrier, which has low permeability, reducing the risk of central nervous system side effects. Additionally, kumarumasin does not exhibit hERG channel inhibitory activity, reducing the risk of cardiotoxicity. The Ames test result was 0.3, indicating a low genotoxicity risk and a certain safety foundation.

The chemical structure diagram of Kumarudin is as follows:

(A molecular structure diagram of kumarudin should be inserted here.)

Plant Origins and Extraction Methods

Quasarumarin was originally isolated from the Australian genus Swainsona spp., and was later discovered in various plants and fungi. Plants containing Rhizoctonin also include certain flavonoids and fungi like Rhizoctonia and Metarhizium. Its natural sources are broad and its content is relatively low, which limits its large-scale application.

Traditional extraction methods mainly use solvent extraction combined with column chromatography separation. The general steps include:

1. Raw material pretreatment: collect plants or fungi containing marmarin (bitter marumarin), dry and crush them.
2. Solvent extraction: Extraction uses polar solvents such as methanol, ethanol, or water to extract the crude extract containing marmarin.
3. After concentration of the crude extract, separation and purification are performed using silica gel column chromatography, ion exchange column, or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
4. The purified product is identified for structure and purity by methods such as mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).

In recent years, the introduction of supercritical fluid extraction and membrane separation technologies has improved the extraction efficiency and purity of kumarumarin, and better aligns with green chemistry principles. Moreover, advances in genetic engineering and microbial fermentation technologies have provided new strategies for the biosynthesis of kumarudin, with the potential for industrial-scale production.

Pharmacological activity research

As an inhibitor of α-mannosidase, kumarumain can interfere with glycosylation of glycoproteins, thereby affecting cell function and signal transduction. Its main pharmacological activities include:

1. Antitumor activity

Numerous in vivo and in vitro experiments have shown that kumarudin has a significant inhibitory effect on various tumor cell lines, including breast cancer, lung cancer, liver cancer, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, and more. Its anti-tumor effects are mainly reflected in:

• Inducing tumor cell apoptosis: Kumaru in activates mitochondrial pathways and death receptor pathways by regulating apoptosis-related protein expression, promoting programmed cell death.
• Cell cycle arrest: Cromatouin can cause tumor cells to stagnate in the G2/M phase, hindering cell division and proliferation.
• Inhibition of tumor cell migration and invasion: By regulating matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and other related factors, it reduces the potential for tumor metastasis.
• Immunomodulatory effect: Kuma Doulin can enhance the body's immune response and improve anti-tumor immune effects.

2. Other pharmacological effects

Besides anti-tumor, kumatoulin also exhibits potential activities such as antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects, but related research is still in its early stages and requires further validation.

Mechanism of action and molecular targets

The biological effects of kumarudin mainly stem from its inhibitory action on α-mannosidase, leading to abnormal glycosylation of glycoproteins and thereby affecting cell signaling and function. The specific mechanism involves multiple molecular targets:

1. MCL1 and BCL2

Kumarumain regulates the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins MCL1 and BCL2, lowering their levels and promoting apoptosis. MCL1 and BCL2, as key regulators of mitochondrial apoptosis pathways, help release cytochrome C and activate the caspase family.

2. STAT3

Signal transduction and transcription activator factor 3 (STAT3) is an important regulatory factor for tumor cell proliferation and immune evasion. Kumarumasin inhibits the phosphorylation and activity of STAT3, blocking its downstream tumorigenic signaling pathway.

3. MMP2

Matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) is involved in the degradation and invasion of the tumor cell matrix. Bitter marumarins inhibit MMP2 expression, reducing the ability of tumor cells to migrate and metastasize.

4. TOP1 vs. TOP2A

Topoisomerase 1 (TOP1) and topoisomerase 2α (TOP2A) are key enzymes for DNA replication and transcription. Bitter madarin inhibits the normal replication and repair of tumor cell DNA by affecting the activity of these two enzymes.

5. HIF1A

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1A) regulates the adaptive response of the tumor hypoxic microenvironment. Cubumatin inhibits HIF1A expression, interfering with metabolic reprogramming and angiogenesis in tumor cells.

6. MAPK1, ESR1, and CYP19A1

Kumarudin also affects the MAPK1 signaling pathway, regulating cell proliferation and apoptosis. Its regulation of estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) and aromatase (CYP19A1) suggests its potential application value in hormone-dependent tumors.

In summary, Kumatouin exerts its antitumor and cellular regulatory functions through multi-target and multi-pathway synergistic effects.

Druggability evaluation and pharmacokinetics

The drug-conductability evaluation of kumarumasu shows it has certain potential for drug development:

• Moderate molecular weight (173.21 Da), beneficial for absorption and distribution in the body.
• Good water solubility (224.1652 mg/mL), aiding formulation development and improved bioavailability.
• Low LogP values indicate strong hydrophilicity, which may limit cell membrane penetration but reduce lipophilic-related toxicity.
• Low blood-brain barrier permeability, reducing the risk of adverse reactions to the central nervous system.
• No hERG inhibitory activity, reducing the risk of cardiotoxicity.
• Ames test results are low, and the genotoxicity risk is small.

Pharmacokinetics, kumadurosin is absorbed orally relatively quickly and widely distributed in the body, but its metabolic pathways and excretion mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Its half-life is moderate, making it suitable for routine administration. Current research suggests that kumarudin is mainly excreted by the kidneys, with limited contribution to liver metabolism.

However, the bioavailability and in vivo stability of kumarudin still need to be optimized. Through drug carrier systems such as nanoparticles and liposomes, it is expected that their pharmacokinetic properties and targeting properties will be enhanced.

Prospects and outlooks for clinical applications

Kumaru Sarin has become a hot topic in anticancer drug development due to its unique anti-tumor mechanism and relatively good safety. Its multi-target mode of action meets the current needs of multi-drug resistant tumor treatment and has broad clinical application potential.

1. Anti-tumor therapy

Kumaru Su can be used as a candidate drug for monotherapy, combination chemotherapy, or targeted therapy. It has shown good inhibitory effects on various solid tumors such as breast cancer and lung cancer, and its efficacy and safety can be verified through clinical trials in the future.

2. Immune regulation and adjuvant therapy

The immunomodulatory effect of kumaru in provides new ideas for tumor immunotherapy. Combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors, it may enhance anti-tumor immune responses and improve treatment outcomes.

3. Challenges in drug development

The low lipid solubility and in vivo stability of kumarumacin limit its clinical application. In the future, structural modification, dosage form innovation, and drug delivery system optimization will be needed to enhance pharmacokinetics and targeting.

In addition, the safety and toxicological evaluation of kumadurosin need further improvement, especially regarding the potential side effects and drug interactions of long-term use.

4. Biosynthesis and production

The development of genetic engineering and synthetic biology technologies is expected to enable large-scale production of kumatourin, reduce costs, and promote its clinical translation.

Conclusion

As a natural indolecidine alkaloid, Kumarumasu shows broad application prospects in the anti-tumor field thanks to its effective and reversible α-mannosidase inhibitory activity. Its multi-target and multi-pathway mechanisms provide new strategies for tumor treatment. Although challenges in druggability and manufacturing processes remain, advances in medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, and drug delivery technologies make Kumaru Su a key candidate for the next generation of anti-tumor drugs.

Future research should focus on structural optimization of kumarumacin, in-depth analysis of its mechanism of action, advancement of preclinical and clinical studies, and the establishment of efficient green production processes, driving it from the laboratory to clinical application and benefiting a broad range of patients.